A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I   J   K   L   M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   W   X   Y   Z

A

ACOUSTIC CODE

Symbolic representation of sound or hearing in the brain.

ALIMENTARY CANAL

The passage (including the esophagus, stomach, and intestines) along which food passes through the body from mouth to anus.

ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE

The system of using alphabet letters and letter combinations to represent the sequence of sounds in words in an orthography.

ALVEOLAR RIDGE

A narrow bony shelf lying directly behind the upper central incisors. A major contact point for “tongue-tip” sounds.

AMYGDALA

A deep-lying part of the brain situated just below the hypothalamus. Focused on basic emotions.

ANGULAR GYRUS

Prominent rounded elevation (convolution) in the posterior portion of the parietal lobe, between Wernicke’s area and the visual cortex, responsible for linguistic processing, especially word recall, and for converting visual stimuli to auditory stimuli (and vice-versa).

ANTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEXT

The frontal part of the cingulate cortex, which resembles a “collar” surrounding the frontal part of the corpus callosum. It appears to play a role in a wide variety of autonomic functions, such as regulating blood pressure and heart rate, as well as rational cognitive functions, such as reward anticipation, decision-making, empathy, impulse control, and emotion.

AUDITORY CORTEX

Language center of the brain located next to the Sylvian fissure, responsible for receiving or identifying auditory signals and converting them into a form interpretable by other language centers of the brain.

AUDITORY NERVE

The VIII^th cranial nerve, which carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain. It conveys information about the body’s balance and hearing functions.

AUTOMATICITY

A process by which an activity (e.g., the mechanical aspect of reading) has become so well learned and routinized that it does not require conscious attention.

B

BASAL GANGLIA

A collection of nerve cell bodies located outside of the brain and spinal cord, within the white matter of each cerebral hemisphere; they serve as important links along various motor pathways of the central nervous system.

BRAILLE

A system of writing and printing for the blind, consisting of raised dots representing letters and numerals.

BRAINSTEM

The part of the brain connecting the forebrain and the spinal cord.

BROCA’S AREA

Motor speech area located at the base of the motor cortex that is responsible for detailing and coordinating the programming of speech movements (usually in the left hemisphere).

C

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The brain and spinal cord. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and control of various other systems and functions.

CEREBELLUM

The part of the central nervous system located below and posterior to the cerebrum and above the brainstem. Serves as the motor-coordinating mechanism for voluntary motor activity, including speech production. It is also involved in regulation of muscle tone and governs the sense of balance.

CEREBRUM

Upper brain, consisting of the cortex and subcortical structures. It controls all voluntary actions in the body.

CINGULATE CORTEX

Part of the brain situated in the medial aspect of the cerebral cortex. An integral part of the limbic system, which is involved with emotion formation and processing, learning, and memory. It is highly influential in linking behavioral outcomes to motivation. It also plays a role in executive function and respiratory control.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The bodily system consisting of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a transportation system to transfer oxygen, fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells, and hormones from one part of the body to another.

COCHLEA

The spiral cavity of the inner ear that contains the essential organ of hearing, the organ of Corti with its nerve endings. Responsible for converting acoustical or mechanical energy into an electrical code for transmission to the brain.

CORNEA

The transparent part of the coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and pupil and admits light to the interior of the eye.

CORPUS CALLOSUM

A mass of transverse nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain for the purpose of exchanging information between the two halves.

CORTEX

Outer surface of the brain, made up of neuron cell bodies that function collectively to initiate, control, and interpret behavior.

D

DECODING

The process of deducing a thought or message from oral to written language. Also, the ability to translate a word from print to speech, usually by employing knowledge of sound-symbol correspondences; the act of deciphering a new word by sounding it out.

DIAPHRAGM

A large dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavities. The lungs rest on top of the diaphragm. A major muscle of inhalation.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The alimentary canal from the mouth to the anus and the associated glands.

E

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Consists of the principal endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads. The glands produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity. Nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine hormones as well, which serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in a variety of changes of function.

EUSTACHIAN TUBE

The tubular opening that connects the posterior nasal cavity and the middle ear.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

An umbrella term for cognitive processes that regulate, control, and manage other cognitive processes, such as planning, working memory, attention, problem-solving, verbal reasoning, inhibition, mental flexibility, task switching, and initiation and monitoring of actions.

EXNER’S AREA

A section of the brain just above Broca’s area and anterior to the primary motor cortex. Works in conjunction with the left superior parietal lobe to control the generation of written text.

EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE

The language used to express thoughts and feelings, answer questions, and relate events. It includes words, tone of voice, gestures, and the rate of speech. 

F

FOREBRAIN

The anterior part of the brain, including the right and left cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.

FRONTAL LOBE

Largest lobe of the brain located at the anterior portion of the cerebrum; primarily responsible for higher biological thought processing (problem-solving) and voluntary motor activity.

G

GANGLIA

Biological tissue masses, most commonly masses of nerve cell bodies.

GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, large and small intestines, rectum, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands. Converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for distribution by the circulatory system to all tissues of the body, and excretes the unused residue.

GRAPHEME

 A letter or group of letters representing a single speech sound (e.g., igh).

GRAPHIC CODE

Symbolic representation of visual information in the brain.

H

HARD PALATE

Comprises the major portion of the roof of the mouth. It consists of a mantle of bone separating the mouth from the nose.

HESCHL’S GYRUS

Area of the temporal lobe connected to the cochlea by the auditory nerve. It has a one-to-one relationship with the hair cells of the organ of Corti.       

HIPPOCAMPUS

One of two curved bands of a very special kind of cortex that belongs to the limbic system and plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory and spatial navigation.

HYPOTHALAMUS

A deep-lying part of the brain situated just below the thalamus; the hypothalamus nuclei are concerned with visceral control, e.g., the regulation of water balance and body temperature.

I

IMMUNE SYSTEM

Consists of the white blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph channels. A diffuse, complex network of interacting cells, cell products, and cell-forming tissues that protects the body from pathogens and other foreign substances, destroys infected and malignant cells, and removes cellular debris.

INNER EAR

The portion of the hearing apparatus that converts sound impulses from the middle ear into an electrochemical signal sent to the brain. It also sends signals to the balance centers in the brain about the body’s orientation in space.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Consists of the skin, including hair and nails, as well as other functionally important structures such as the sweat glands and sebaceous glands (secrete sebum that lubricates and waterproofs the skin).

IRIS

The doughnut-shaped part of the eye, situated between the cornea and the crystalline lens; the contraction of the iris alters the size of the pupil.

J

 

K

 

L

LANGUAGE

A socially shared code or conventional system for representing concepts through the use of arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of those symbols.

LANGUAGE COMPETENCE

The ability to produce and understand well-formed, meaningful sentences.

LARYNX

The organ of voice production, located at the upper end of the trachea; it contains the vocal folds.

LATERAL ORBITOFRONTAL LOBE

Area of the brain below the frontal lobe, responsible for controlling the appropriateness of social/emotional responses.

LEFT HEMISPHERE

The left side of the brain that is specialized for processing language, among other things. It receives and controls nerve input from the right half of the body.

LENS

The biconvex transparent structure of the eye, shaped so that light rays passing through it are made to diverge or converge.

LIMBIC SYSTEM

A complex set of brain structures that lies on both sides of the thalamus, right under the cerebrum. It controls autonomic functions and the emotions.

M

METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS 

An acquired awareness of language structure and function that allows one to reflect on and consciously manipulate the language.

MIDDLE EAR

A small cavity behind the eardrum membrane that houses three small bones carrying sound vibrations to the inner ear.

MORPHEME

Smallest unit of language that has a meaning or grammatical function; it is indivisible (dog) without violating the meaning or producing meaningless units (d, og).

MORPHOLOGY

A system of rules for combining morphemes into words. Refers to the individual elements of language such as root words, prefixes, and suffixes. The study of word structure.

MOTOR CORTEX

That portion of the cerebral cortex located in the upper middle of each hemisphere, perpendicular to the Sylvian fissure, responsible for sending impulses to the muscles.

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

Consists of the skeleton (which includes bones ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) and attached muscles. Gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood cells.

N

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

O

OCCIPITAL LOBE

The most posterior portion of each cerebral hemisphere that is primarily responsible for all aspects of the visual sense.

OCULOMOTOR NERVE

The third cranial nerve. It controls most of the eye’s movements, including constriction of the pupil and maintaining an open eyelid.

ONSET-RIME UNIT

The initial consonant or consonant cluster of a syllable before the vowel (onset) + the part of the syllable that includes the vowel and what follows it (rime).

OPTIC NERVE

The second cranial nerve. It transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.

ORGAN OF CORTI

The sensory end organ for hearing consisting of tiny hair cells, which are connected via the auditory nerve to the temporal lobe area of the brain.

ORTHOGRAPHY

A writing system.

OUTER EAR

The outermost portion of the hearing apparatus that contains the pinna (to funnel sound), the external auditory canal, and the eardrum membrane.

 

P

PARIETAL LOBE

The medial and upper lateral areas of the cerebrum responsible for reception and analysis of tactile and kinesthetic sensory impulses (touch and muscle movement awareness), bodily orientation in space, and is responsible for the generation of written text.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The part of the nervous system consisting of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord.

PHARYNX

A cavity lying behind the nasal cavity, oral cavity, and upper larynx. It serves as an important link between numerous other cavities: the nasal cavity, the oral cavity, the Eustachian tubes, the esophagus, and the larynx.

PHONATION

The production of voice by vibration of the vocal folds.

PHONEME

Smallest linguistic unit of sound, each with distinctive features, that can signal a difference in meaning when modified.

PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS

Metalinguistic awareness of the sound properties of language, including word boundaries, stress patterns, syllables, onset-rime units, and phonemes. The ability to notice, manipulate, and think about the sounds in language.

PHONOLOGY

(1) Aspect of language concerned with the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds in a language. (2) Science of speech sounds and sound patterns. (3) That aspect of language concerned with units such as features, segments, syllables, the representation of these units and the rules that govern their combination and form.

PRAGMATICS

The study of how the meaning conveyed by a word or sentence depends on the context in which it is used (such as time, place, social relationship between speaker and hearer, and speaker’s assumptions about the hearer’s beliefs).

PREFRONTAL LOBE

An area in the brain located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to the parietal lobe and superior and anterior to the temporal lobes. It contains most of the dopamine-sensitive neurons in the cerebral cortex and is associated with reward, attention, short-term memory tasks, planning, and motivation.

PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX

The visual area in the brain located in the posterior pole of the occipital lobe. It is highly specialized for processing information about static and moving objects and is excellent in pattern recognition.

PROPRIOCEPTION 

Body position.

PUPIL

The circular opening in the center of the iris, through which light enters the eye.

Q

 

R

RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE

The comprehension of language—listening (and viewing) and understanding what is communicated.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Consists of the gonads and the internal and external sex organs. The reproductive system produces gametes in each sex, a mechanism for their combination, and a nurturing environment for the first 9 months of the development of the fetus.

RESPIRATION

The act of breathing.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The air passages, lungs, and the muscles of respiration. Brings oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air.

RETINA

A layer at the back of the eyeball containing cells that are sensitive to light and that trigger nerve impulses that pass via the optic nerve to the brain.

RIGHT HEMISPHERE

The right half of the brain that is specialized for processing visual-spatial information. It receives and controls nerve input from the left half of the body.

 

S

SEMANTICS

Study of meaning in language.

SENSORY CORTEX

The area of the cerebral cortex of the brain to which the somatic sensory signals (vision, hearing, taste, smell, and equilibrium) are sent.

SIGHT WORDS

Written words that are known as wholes; they do not have to be sounded out to be recognized quickly, and are often taught as “exception” or “non-phonetic” words.

SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM                 

A diverse sensory system comprising the receptors and processing centers to produce the sensory modalities such as touch, temperature, body position and pain.

SOUND-SYMBOL CORRESPONDENCE

The relation between graphic symbols and the sounds they represent.

SYLVIAN FISSURE

The fissure in the brain separating the temporal lobe from the frontal lobe.

SYNTAX

The rule system governing phrase and sentence formation; the study of word order, sentence organization, and word relationships.

T

TACTILE CODE

Symbolic representation of tactile information in the brain.

TEMPORAL LOBE

Lower lateral portion of the cerebrum, responsible for sensation and interpretation of auditory impulses and olfactory impulses.

THALAMUS

A subcortical region that receives, synthesizes, and relays all sensory stimuli, except smell, to specific cortical areas for analysis.  Responsible for the control of all objective behavior, such as voluntary motor activity, and for control of sensory input from all parts of the body.

TRACHEA

The windpipe; the tube between the larynx and the lungs through which air travels.

U

URINARY SYSTEM

Consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Removes water from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body.

 

V

VAGUS NERVE

Cranial nerve X. Eighty-nine to 90% of the nerve fibers in the vagus nerve communicate sensory information about the state of the body’s organs to the brain. It contributes to the innervation of a number of organs in the body.

VELUM

The soft palate. Muscular protrusion extending backward from the hard palate. The velum is lowered for normal breathing and for the production of nasal sounds. It is raised against the posterior pharyngeal wall for the production of non-nasal sounds.

VISUAL CORTEX

Area of the brain located at the lower back of each hemisphere responsible for receiving and interpreting visual stimuli and said to store pictorial images.

VOCAL FOLDS

Folds of muscle in the larynx that vibrate when air passes between them, producing phonation.

VOICE

The sound produced by air passing through the vocal folds, upper respiratory tract, and oral structures.

W

WERNICKE’S AREA

Large language-processing area of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere, located next to the primary auditory cortex at or around the posterior end of the Sylvian fissure. Connected to those parts of the brain concerned with memory and experience. Responsible for organizing the underlying structure of outgoing messages and analyzing incoming linguistic information. Compares incoming auditory signals with past experiences for the purpose of semantic interpretation.

WORD IDENTIFICATION

Reading a word, either by decoding it or recognizing it by sight.

 

X

 

Y

 

Z